Brazilian Miracle
An economic boom built upon industrialization, the Brazilian Miracle is remembered as a failure in centralized planning, military autocracy, and state terror that ultimately degraded many to their pre-industrial lives.
USS Kitty Hawk Riot
October 12, 1972 – October 13, 1972
Under the strain of the divisive Vietnam War, racial tensions boiled over as sailors aboard the USS Kitty Hawk violently fought amongst themselves in a riot fueled by hatred.
Background for Context
There have been few actions in American history more divisive than the U.S. entry into the Vietnam War. In the 1960s, America was undergoing a cultural revolution. The anti-war “hippie” culture of rebellious youths had gone mainstream; the country was in a state of upheaval. Feeling misguided by the U.S.’s interventionist actions, many took to the streets to burn draft cards and protest American involvement in the Vietnam War. Despite their relatively small numbers, these protesters were able to make their imprint on the wider culture of the 1960s. Coextensive to the anti-war movement was the civil rights movement, making great strides for the progress of African Americans. Like the anti-war protests, the actions of civil rights leaders became visible to the wider American public, attracting both support and ire across the nation. Both these movements would go on to shape the character of the mid-twentieth-century youth, the same youth who would become soldiers fighting overseas. For these men, the stress of warfare would only exasperate the underlying differences they perceived amongst themselves.
Stop Our Ship
By the end of the 1960s, the U.S. was looking to change its strategy in Vietnam. Facing increasing casualties and discontent among its troops, aerial bombardment became heavily relied upon as a means of simplifying warfare. In response, anti-war outrage manifested into protests and petitions, aiming to keep aircraft carriers in port. Thousands of civilians and servicemen marched on city streets and naval bases, committing acts of vandalism and sabotage to convey their message, “Stop Our Ship”. This slogan, coined from a sailor’s petition, became synonymized with the wider anti-war movement as a whole. By “stopping the ship”, the protesters were aiming to prevent the transport of aircraft and what they viewed as the bombing of innocents in Vietnam. Opposing “Stop Our Ship” were the members of “Sail Our Boat” and similar groups like it, arguing that holding back air support was downright un-American. The most avid supporters of these two groups tended to be GIs, many of whom would serve on the USS Kitty Hawk.
“Stop Our Ship” protesters marching down Market Street, San Francisco on November 6 of 1971. The men positioned center frame are holding a coffin decorated with the appearance of the USS Coral Sea aircraft carrier. Source : Sixties Photos
Executive Order 9981
On July 26 of 1948, President Truman signed Executive Order 9981 to integrate the armed forces. This was a major step forward for the civil rights movement, however, it was also faced with a critical issue. Given that the majority of Black servicemen were uneducated, they were rarely promoted to authoritative positions. In addition, the racial prejudices of White superior officers prevented Black servicemen from climbing the military ranks, leaving them to act as menial laborers. This generated resentment throughout the armed forces as Black servicemen felt their opportunities continued to be limited by the color of their skin. In the tension, tribal behavior emerged as Black servicemen expressed their disdain for their White officers while White servicemen acted on their racial prejudices. Aboard the Kitty Hawk, the tension created by these cultural divides would generate wider discontent among its crew.
Black and White American soldiers manning a machine gun position during the Korean War. Source : Korean War Legacy Foundation
Kitty Litter
Captain Marland “Doc” Townsend was an extraordinary military figure. In his previous two decades with the armed forces, he had received multiple Distinguished Flying Crosses, helped organize the famous “Top Gun” flight school, and become the captain of the Navy’s lead ship. Tough but fair, he was respected by both his superiors and subordinates for his experience in the line of duty and his willingness to embrace new policy in a time of great change for the Navy. One such new policy was in regard to the cleaning of his ship. When in port, rotating groups of sailors would have to remain on board to clean while their peers were allowed time off work. This proved to be wildly unpopular among the Kitty Hawk’s crew with scathing critiques of Townsend appearing in the ship’s underground newspaper, Kitty Litter. In the paper, he is criticized for his unjust punishments, possible racism, and war-hawk attitude. In addition, Kitty Litter circulated through a large portion of the Kitty Hawk’s five thousand sailors. The anti-war and Black-empowerment messages found in the paper resonated with the men, radicalizing many into actions of sabotage and violence. Soon, disenchanted sailors began pouring sugar into oil and busting equipment with hammers. Adding fuel to the fire, fallacies and misunderstandings regarding race-based job selection created small scuffles between disgruntled Black and White sailors, further stoking tensions aboard the ship. Townsend was losing the fight on all fronts. In his direct view, he was losing his men’s will to fight and therefore his capacity to wage war against the Viet Cong. More subtly though, he was losing the respect and control of his men as they became increasingly unhinged and turned against themselves.
An excerpt from the article titled “The New Captain, Another Queeg?” from the August 1972 issue of Kitty Litter. The anonymous crew member who authors the newspaper describes his views on Captain Townsend’s policies and the treatment of the Kitty Hawk’s crew. The name “Queeg” is a reference to the fictional Captain Queeg from Herman Wouk’s, “The Caine Mutiny”, an unstable man who obsesses over the order and operation of his crew.
“Captain Townsend has shown himself to be one of the original ‘law n’ order kids’, both at mast and on the 1MC [1 Main Circuit, ship-wide intercom]. He has imposed such arcane and ridiculous punishments as 3 days’ bread and water for such tiny and meaningless ‘crimes’ as unauthorized absence. In two consecutive masts, Captain Townsend has put several black men into the brig for fighting with white men, while dismissing ‘with a warning’ a white man who spoke in a demeaning manner to a black man and then proceeded to punch him in the stomach! Needless to say, this angered the black men on board, as well as many white men (one of whom is the legal officer).”
Source : Wisconsin Historical Society
Kitty Litter, Volume 1, Issue 7, August of 1972
The Strip and the Jungle
After 247 days at sea and numerous extensions to the ship’s deployment, the crew of the Kitty Hawk was fed up and tired. In action for far longer than any previous assignment, the sailors had become homesick, agitated, and needed a release. Aboard the ship, many Black sailors found this release by “dapping”, a practice of exchanging elaborate and symbolic handshakes as a means of traditional greeting. Dapping became a symbol of rebellion aboard the Kitty Hawk, with many Black servicemen viewing it as a display of brotherly love in the face of White oppression. Galvanized Black sailors quickly took up the habit of dapping in front of White servicemen in an attempt to aggravate them, blocking passageways and equipment while performing the gesture. When the ship finally arrived at the Subic Bay Naval Base on October 8, the antagonism generated from these outward displays of culture would fail to escape the crew. Stepping onto Philippine soil, thousands of sailors flooded the town of Olongapo in search of bars, brothels, and nightclubs to distract from their daily problems. Unfortunately for the Black servicemen, Olongapo was segregated into the White section known as “the strip” and the Black section known as “the jungle”. These racial divides would come to a head in the racially-neutral enlisted men’s club. During the night, a Black man took the stage and began yelling, “Black power! This is a White man’s war!”. The club erupted in violence as sailors threw chairs and hurled fists at each other. The base marines were quickly assembled and quelled the fighting, ordering the Black sailors to not return to the club. Furious, the sailors exited the club feeling unjustly punished for a fight caused by two parties.
The Sampaguita Club Brawl
The second incident in Subic Bay occurred on October 10 of 1972. That night, the Sampaguita Club was hosting its weekly “soul night”, the only occasion where Black servicemen were welcomed. At around one in the morning, ten Black men dressed in stereotypical African American clothing walked on stage, stopped the band, and began dapping with one another. It became clear they were trying to make a statement to the White men in the audience. Almost immediately, Black and White attendees exchanged a crossfire of racial taunts and slurs. Escalating the situation further, a Black sailor punched a patrolman stationed at the club door. The heckling turned to violence as servicemen threw beer bottles and chairs, engulfing the club in a brawl fueled by racial hatred, bitterness, and maltreatment. Expecting a fight, marines stationed at-the-ready entered the club, whacking their batons against anything that moved. The commotion from the incident alerted the patrons of nearby establishments, amassing a mob of servicemen outside. The situation was a complete mess with the guarding marines being overwhelmed by the confused group of inquiring and injured sailors. Eventually, a collective effort was made to get the largely intoxicated group back onto the Kitty Hawk. These sailors would leave Olongapo smoldering with anger, directing it at their fellow servicemen.
Servicemen socializing at a common spot similar to the Sampaguita Club, located in Subic Bay. Source : USS Thomaston Archive
Rumors & Misunderstandings
Upon learning of the brawl at the Sampaguita Club, Townsend was skeptical at best. He doubted his men were capable of such reckless violence but conceded that he didn’t have the most personal relationship with his crew. Townsend was correct in this belief, he did not have a personal relationship with his crew. Unknown to him, his men had become consumed in stories from the past night’s brawls in the enlisted men’s club and the Sampaguita Club. White sailors accused Black men of instigating while Black sailors accused White men of being racially prejudiced. While the truth often lies somewhere in the middle, these two partially-correct narratives became the most prominent versions of the Subic Bay brawls among the Kitty Hawk’s crew. These retellings, told from opposing points of view, further divided the sailors, the vast majority of whom had not witnessed the fights. Tensions aboard the Kitty Hawk were pushed to a breaking point and soon, the state of order below deck would collapse. On October 12, a marine stopped three Black servicemen in the hangar bay, ordering them to break up into groups of two. The three men hadn’t heard of such rule, believing they were being harassed for the color of their skin. After a brief argument, the marine drew his baton and forced one of the Black men, Perry Pettus, into a stranglehold braced against the body of an aircraft. Hearing the struggle, more marines entered the hangar and handcuffed all three Black men, taking them to Townsend. The marines had mistaken their orders, being asked to break up groups of men potentially sabotaging equipment, not groups greater than two people. Upon the realization of this misunderstanding, the three men were released from the brig and given a thorough apology from the captain. However, this would do little to improve the delicate relationship between the Black and White servicemen of the Kitty Hawk.
The Carrier Race Riot
The scuffle involving Perry Pettus and the marines was just one of many altercations that day. Collectively, these racial incidents instilled a feeling of animosity, fear, and resentment among the Kitty Hawk’s crew. All these emotions would come to a head in the way much of this started, a petty argument. That night, Terry Avinger walked into the mess hall looking for dinner. Feeling especially hungry, he asked the cook for two sandwiches rather than one. After being promptly denied his second sandwich, the sailor ignored the cook and took one anyway. A small argument broke out between the two men in which Avinger protested that he wouldn’t let himself be bossed around by a White man. The Black sailor flounced out of the mess hall to confide in his friends. Retelling his dispute with the cook, Avinger enraptured his fellow sailors by evoking images of Black pride. In this impassioned fervor, Black sailors began ransacking the ship as well as violently assaulting any White sailor unfortunate enough to encounter the rioters. Both sides hastily made makeshift weapons out of broom handles, pipes, and hoses but the organization and zeal of the Black rioters negated any resistance from the White sailors. Seeing the situation was far beyond negotiation, a White cook phoned the stationed marines to resolve the situation. The resulting standoff between the pipe-wielding rioters and the baton-brandishing marines only exasperated the violence. While bottles, chairs, and tables were thrown, the marines held their ground as they waited for the arrival of the Kitty Hawk’s Executive Officer, Ben Cloud. Half Black and half Native American, Cloud was deemed the most suitable officer to calm the rioters. He ordered the marines to lock all exits to the mess hall, effectively detaining the rioters into a confined space. Cloud entered the room alone, feeling that his familiar presence would be a subduing one to the rowdy crowd. He was correct in this belief as his words resonated with the men, extinguishing the fiery emotions held only moments prior. Raising a Black power fist, Cloud was able to command the total respect of these men who were now exhilarated by the approval of a sympathetic officer. Townsend was displeased by Cloud’s handling of the event. He felt that since the Executive Officer had identified with the rioters, it had not only strengthened their power but had diminished his own authority. However, if it were not for Cloud’s intervention, it is likely the riot would have expanded far beyond the mess hall and out of the control of a few marines. Despite the futile organization of a counter-riot by White sailors, relative peace was restored on the ship. When the dust settled, 6 Black and 40 White sailors were injured in the Kitty Hawk’s infamous race riot.
The Media Frenzy
On November 28 of 1972, the Kitty Hawk arrived back in a San Diego port. While sailors were allowed to see their families once again, they would stumble into a media frenzy attempting to scrap together what happened on board the ship. In a crew of five thousand men, details tended to get muddled or spun in misleading ways. This led to conflicting reports on the numbers, motivations, and actions of the rioters emerging in media outlets such as The New York Times. In addition, at least twenty-seven men were charged or accused of perpetrating the riot; nearly all of them were Black. The racial tensions which stoked the riot on board the Kitty Hawk had reignited the conversation of race in the American public, prompting involvement from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Additionally, the “Stop Our Ship” movement turned its focus onto the Kitty Hawk. Before the ship even made it to port, “Stop the Hawk” was already on the banners of protesters throughout California as they marched through city streets, using the riot as further justification to end the war in Vietnam. While the Navy had prepared for such media involvement, they had not prepared for the emergence of protests on other vessels. Aboard the USS Constellation, 130 men staged a sit-down protest on the ship’s deck. While it was purely pacifist, it sent a message through the chain of command that there was a systemic issue facing its fleet. These issues would attempt to be rectified through congressional meetings involving testimony from both the crew of the Constellation and the Kitty Hawk, culminating in a 1973 report on the incidents. By the report’s findings, it became generally accepted that these incidents, however much they were influenced by the culture of “the time”, were ultimately the result of neglect and maltreatment from the command of these carriers.
A protestor marching in 1972 holding a sign and wearing a logo with the phrase, “Stop the Hawk”, imprinted. Source : WikiMedia Commons
An excerpt from the congressional report released on January 2 of 1973 in which the author gives their opinion on the sophistication of the rioters as well as the Navy’s ill-preparation for riots aboard their ships.
“The subcommittee is of the position that the riot on Kitty Hawk consisted of unprovoked assaults by a very few men, most of whom were below-average mental capacity, most of whom had been aboard for less than one year, and all of whom were black. This group, as a whole, acted as “thugs” which raises doubt as to whether they should ever have been accepted into military service in the first place.” … “The statement that riots, mutinies and acts of sabotage in the Navy are a product of “the time” is not valid. If those in positions of authority who profess such arguments really believe them, they have been negligent in not taking proper precautionary action to prevent to occurrence or to deal with such once they did occur. It is incredible that the Navy was totally unprepared to cope with such incidents as occurred aboard Kitty Hawk and Constellation. In view of the disturbances in recent years in the other military services, the Navy appears to have indulged in wishful thinking, apparently believing that the similar incidents would not happen aboard ship.”
Source : Naval History and Heritage Command
Report by the Special Subcommittee on the Disciplinary Problems in the US Navy, January 2 of 1973
Another Chapter of Racial Violence
While the congressional report did acknowledge the extent to which poor leadership contributed to the riot, it dismissed the importance of culture as a cause. Black servicemen, whether they were in an American port or stationed thousands of miles from home, were subject to the same racial prejudices throughout. White officers often assigned Black subordinates to menial jobs, making many feel unimportant and restricted in their careers. This generated animosity on lines of authority and race among the crew of the Kitty Hawk. It was the constant extensions to the ship’s deployment which wore on the men, making them agitated after hundreds of days at sea. This was the result of poor guidance and the prioritization of the air raid schedule over the health of the men flying said missions. From this agitation, men turned their frustration into anger, attacking their fellow servicemen in brawls which allowed deep-seated racism to be unearthed. This event serves as an example for a number of things. First, it exemplifies how a small group can be motivated to form a wider uprising. Second, it encapsulates how neglect and maltreatment can divide people. Third and most importantly, this event serves as a microcosm for the larger racial divide of mid-twentieth century America and how it shaped the views, policies, and actions of those living in “the time”. The USS Kitty Hawk riot remains just one of many chapters in a long story of American racial violence.
Bibliography
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